Challenges to Female Entrepreneurs | Research

Challenges to Female Entrepreneurs | Research INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Entrepreneurship as a research field attracts the interest of many researchers because it is a tool of development for many economies in the world (Creamer, 2006), Likewise views on feminism today are vast as they are varied and contentious, (Ikoku, 2002), which explains the increasing attention of Female Entrepreneurship in the recent years (Jamali,2009). Not only does female entrepreneurship contribute to economic growth and employment creation, but it is increasingly recognized to also enhance the diversity of entrepreneurship in any economic system (Verheul et al., 2006) and to provide avenues for female expression and potential fulfillment (Jamali,2009; Eddleston and Powell, 2008). The investigation of the factors that leads particular people to become entrepreneurs instead of others has been a question of many researches. So, many researchers have tried to understand the reasons leading those people to entrepreneurship. Toward that direction, theories and models (Leahey, 2006) were developed, and focused on the intentions that make people undertake entrepreneurship action, because the intentions are the best predictor factor for the future behavior of a person, such as the foundation of an enterprise (Krueger, 2005). So it is supported, that by formulating fundamental theories for the entrepreneurial intentions, we can explain a basic peace of the field of entrepreneurship as it affects genders. Institutional theory has been viewed as a fruitful theoretical lens in the context of female entrepreneurship research (Baugh et al., 2006). Drawing on institutional theory, Scott (1995) enumerates salient regulative, normative and cognitive pillars of institutions, which promote stability and predictability in social behavior, through compliance with codified laws. Of course there are some factors that contribute to the prediction of the entrepreneurial intentions such as the attitude and the degree of desirability toward that behavior and the level of the feasibility (Krueger, 2005). Davidson (2005) mentioned other factors defining the intentions of entrepreneurship such as propensity to action, personal convictions and other demographic variables such as gender, age, educational level and economic environment. 1.2 Women in Business The 20th century has been a period of rapid change for many women, but life for women in some parts of the world still remains harsh. However, women are getting a vital role in the global market as entrepreneurs, they play a large and growing role in the US, Canada and UK. Hisrick Ozturk,(1999) attributed their success to access to greater support from women mentors and role models and easier access to formal training in the principles of business planning and organization. Whereas, women in developing countries face obstacles such as lack of access to education and training, access to finance as well as discrimination and lack of respect or not being taken seriously (Woldie adersua,2004;Ezeaku Ozigbo, 2009). Globally, it is estimated that women account for 25-33 percent of all businesses (National Foundation of Women Business Owners, 1998). Whilst in the UK and the USA, they account for 26 and 33 percent of business start-ups respectively, surprisingly, in the Sub- Saharan Africa it is 80 percent (Kitching and Woldie, 2004).Despite the high contribution in Africa, their needs seem to be overlooked and largely hidden within the informal sector compared to their male counterparts (Mordi et al.,2009). The subject of womens career development has become increasingly important as the percentage of the Nigerian labour force that is female has increased from 11.2% two decades ago to 40.4% today (Federal office of statistics) and the proportion is expected to increase further (Nakhaie, 2007). Although there have been some women in managerial positions during the last decade, the number has been painfully few in the light of the fact that over forty percent of the work force are women. Nigerian Economy Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, and accounts for half of West Africas population, and over 25 percent of Sub- Sahara Africa (SSA) (Nkamnebe, 2008). It is populated with over 150 million inhabitants, of which, over half of the population 15-64 years is young and active (C. I. A, 2010), still the country is characterized with poverty and is on the increase. For instance, poverty increased from 35 million people in 1985, to 39 million people in 1992; 67 people in 1996; and 74 million people in 1999. In addition, Human Development Programme indicates that 70.8 percent and 92.4 percent of Nigerian population live below US$1 (N117) and US$2 (N234) daily respectively (UNDP,2007). This claim supports the ranking of Nigeria among less developed nations of the world (UNDP, 2007). The Nigerian labour market has been characterized by high rate of unemployment, low wage and poor working conditions. This unwholesome situation evolved after the oil boom of the 1970s and remained so till date (Nnanna, Alade and Odoko, 2003). Prior to the oil boom, the Nigerian economy was largely agrarian and about 70% of the working population was engaged in agricultural activities in the rural areas. Wage rates were also comparable to international standards and the average Nigerian worker could afford decent living. In the 1960s, the emphasis of employment policies was that of shifting labour from the agricultural sector to the manufacturing sector. This appeared to be the natural path of economic growth and development, following the experienced of the developed countries (Ajakaiye, 2001). However, the Nigerian peculiarities of land tenure system, tenancy and the very rudimentary processes of farming made it extremely difficult to deploy substantially advance technology in the sector. Moreover, at that time economic policies concentrated more on the development of the manufacturing sector, under the much touted import-substitution strategy. Rather, labour moved from the agricultural sector to the services sector, with little productivity gains. Both agriculture and manufacturing lost out. The issue of sustainable development in the Third World like Nigeria has been a growing concern to both the government and the private sector. The government had invested so much money on this platform over the years but has not yielded any meaningful result. It has been realized in the recent years that there are limits to which the government alone can promote development especially with Nigerian peculiar developmental challenges due to maladministration, corruption, unstable macroeconomic regime and unpredictable fiscal policies by successive administrations (Fasua, 2006). Thus, both the public and the private sectors of the economy need to be involved in the industrial development process of the country. It is on this basis that government begins to engage in privatization policy with the view of allowing the private sector to participate in the economic development of the nation (Olu, 2009). The weak economy itself choked out several business enterprises and curtailed employment opportunities. Staff retrenchment became pervasive, starting first in the private sector and later the public sector. The unemployment was more problematic in the urban areas, as shown in the following chart (CBN, 2003). Nwoye (2007) further suggested that the best way to stimulate the economic system is by mobilizing energy, expertise and resource in Small and Medium Enterprises which will increase productivity, and ultimately improve the social life and economic welfare. The author was also concerned about the attainment of economic growth when half the population being female gender is marginalized in policy planning and economic resource management matters. Moreover, with women comprising of 52 percent of Africas estimated 805 million population, womens empowerment is of the essence for Africa sustainable growth. This claim is applicable to Nigeria which is the most populous country in Africa. 1.3 Research Gap Research on female business owners is extensive in the industrialised economies, especially the United States and Canada (Lerner, Brush and Hisrich, 1997), which has helped the development and needs of the female entrepreneurs. Most of the research reflects the characteristics, experiences and challenges of female entrepreneurs in the western world (Kitching and Woldie, 2004; Carter, 2000), However, a limited number of studies have been undertaken to investigate these issues in the developing countries (Mordi et al., 2010). Despite the extent of female entrepreneurs in involvement in new business formation, the economic impact of women led businesses has been down-played (Carter et al.,2002): Female entrepreneurship is an under-researched area with tremendous economic potential and one that requires special attention (Henry, 2002) Thus, there has been a growing call by scholars for studies in non- Western context to deepen our knowledge of the socially constructed nature of female entrepreneurs. In response to this research gap, the author chooses Nigeria as the scope of analysis. Aims and Objective of the Research The aim of the study is to take a deeper look at the problems faced by female entrepreneurs in Nigeria focusing on gender effects and other factors in the environment. The following objectives are formulated to guide the investigation: To identify factors in the business environment that affects the development and survival of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. To ascertain if the issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria affects entrepreneurial ability of women. To determine whether family roles have any effect on female entrepreneur performance in Nigeria. To determine if there is any relationship between gender and entrepreneurial skill in Nigeria. To ascertain whether culture and beliefs affect the performance of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria The dissertation deals with the problem of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. The unit of analysis is the gender. The focus is on individual and organizational shortcomings of nascent and young entrepreneurs and their ventures and employs a theoretical framework that allows for addressing these managerial problems by adopting an evolutionary perspective. Research Questions The following research questions are formulated to guide the investigation: Are there factors in the business environment that affects the development and survival of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria? Does the issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria affects entrepreneurial ability of women? Do family roles have effect on female entrepreneur performance in Nigeria? Is there any relationship between gender inequality and entrepreneurial skill in Nigeria? Do culture and beliefs affect the performance of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria? Research Hypotheses For the purpose of this study, it is important to test the following hypotheses: Hypothesis I Ho: The issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria has no effects on entrepreneurial ability of women. Hi: The issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria has effects on entrepreneurial ability of women. Hypothesis II Ho: There is no relationship between the family roles and female entrepreneurs performance in Nigeria. Hi: There is relationship between the family roles and female entrepreneurs performance in Nigeria. Hypothesis III Ho: Gender inequality is not significant to female entrepreneurial ability in Nigeria Hi: Gender inequality is significant to female entrepreneurial ability in Nigeria Significance of the Study This is significant to many people in many areas. In this light, the study is relevant because it seeks to provide entrepreneurial guideline and gender development procedure that would lead to effective attainment of national objectives in terms of economic growth and reduction of unemployment in Nigeria. To the female gender the study would serve as eye opener in terms of discovering their entrepreneurial potentials despite the influence of culture and beliefs. The conclusions can be used both in the evaluation of the current system concerning entrepreneurship as well as in the formation of new strategies in the entrepreneurship in tertiary education. It would provide students in higher-institutions with sound knowledge and give them avenue to the understanding the need for venturing into entrepreneurial activities, how, why and when entrepreneurial skills acquired tertiary institutions should be implemented. Finally, the study would serve as a veritable source of information for individuals, youths irrespective of gender and the government, on how to harvest the rich benefit of entrepreneurship in the national building and economic development. 1.7 Scope of the Study In view of the fact that the study of problems faced by female entrepreneurs involves all and sundry and cannot be exhausted in this research. It therefore becomes necessary to define the scope of the study. The scope of this study is female entrepreneurs and graduates on National Youth Corps Service (NYSC) in Lagos area of Nigeria, 2010. Therefore, this research is an empirical examination of entrepreneurship problems in Nigeria and entrepreneurial skills among graduates on NYSC; analysis by gender; it will go beyond theoretical approach to evaluate entrepreneurs problems and gender effect on entrepreneurship to generate further insight. 1.8 Structure of the Dissertation This study is divided into five parts. Chapter one is the introductory which highlights the statement of the identified problems, objectives, research questions and significance of the study, etc. Chapter two contains a detailed review of literature on key concepts of entrepreneurship, gender influence on entrepreneur performance and problems faced by female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. Chapter three discusses the research design, data collection methods, sample size determination, questionnaire design and administration, etc. In chapter four, the presentation and analysis of data and the testing of hypotheses are carried out. The results and interpretation are presented. Chapter five is the concluding part of the study, where reasons are given for the results obtained from the research. Conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions are made for improvement based on the research findings. 1.9 Definition of Terms Entrepreneur: Is the innovating individual, who initiates and nurtures to growth a new and an on going business organisation, where none existed before. Entrepreneurial Skill: The potential and ability of an individual to initiate and nurtures a new business to growth, expertly. Development: Is defined as gradual advancement through progressive stages of growth from within Capital Venture: Is a form of long term investment for start-up companies and growing businesses that have the potential to develop into significant economic contributors. Gender: Nature of human being that depict sex which is made of male and female. Graduates: Young Schools leavers especially those from higher institution of learner (i.e. universities, polytechnic and colleges, etc) National Youth Corps Service: A compulsory one year work experience program for graduates in Nigeria

An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs: A Speech by Chief Joseph

Sunju Han History 152 Document Analysis During the late nineteenth century, many changes have occurred during the Industrial Revolution. The living conditions in America were deteriorating for anyone who wasn’t in the upper social economic classes. Many complaints were arising from the masses. Of the population, two primary documents have been observed to express the point of views of particular groups they represent. One of these documents was from Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce Indians, from the Indian point of view. The other document was from the Populists Party, largely representing the farmers and working classes of the 1890s.The time period of both documents roughly range from the 1870s through the 1890s. Chief Joseph’s speech was called â€Å"An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs†. In his speech, he speaks from the Indian’s perspective of how they are treated and handled. One of the many issues he brings up is about the treatment of his people. He felt that his people are treated like animals and outlaws, being shot down or driven from country to country. The whites who have encroached on their land have driven off their cattle and horses. They also stole from the Indians. For example, whites would brand the Indian’s young cattle so that they can claim it as their own.Chief Joseph also felt the whites were causing problems on purpose in order to start a war between the whites and Indians. He pleads his case by stating how the Indians didn’t kill off the first white settlers that were having trouble surviving. Now they repay their thanks by causing trouble because they have the power to conquer the Indians. In the beginning, the Indians gave up some of their land foolishly believe they would be left alone but the more they gave, the more that was taken from them. He complains that his people aren’t getting treated like humans. Many whites saw them as savages that don’t know any other way than vio lence.In his speech he is taking an emotional approach in order to gain the sympathy of law enforcers, Congress or the President, or from the population. As Chief Joseph was stating how his people were treated, he also stated a general outline of the future he envisioned for his people. The future he envisioned consisted mainly of equality. He dreams of his people being treated like all the other men from the states. He pleads that everybody follows the same set of legislation in the land that they all share. He believes that anyone born of the earth was born a free man and should be given liberty.He wants his men to have an equal chance at life in general. The simple liberties like freedom to travel, work, trade where ever they choose, choice of teacher, or even following the religion of their fore fathers. The basic liberties stated in the very foundation of our country are what Chief Joseph is advocating for his people. He states that they will follow whatever laws set before the m if they can get a chance of being treated like a real man in this country. Joseph did indeed believe that Native Americans and whites could coexist in the United States.When the first white settlers appeared, he believed that they would all have the same set of morals and values. This was the basis of his belief in the coexistence of Indians and whites. His speech also depicts the very possibility of coexistence in exchange for equality. He believes that the Indians would have no problem or reason to cause conflict or trouble if these basic requests were met. He also believes that any man born in the same earth are all granted equal rights from the moment they were born. He states that he is simply reclaiming those rights in order to help better the living conditions his people are living in.He also believes that much of the bloodshed and war can be avoided if each party can be more honest with each other and compromise. The Populists were the first political insurgency, meaning t hat they were the first to radically go against the ideas of our nation’s political policies. They were the first political party that appealed to the farmers and the â€Å"producing class†, which included the industrial workers to the miners. They were the first party to bring up any political platform on issues that were for the general working class. Many of the other political parties would try to cover up the many problems present in our economy.They were the radicals that went against all the other political platforms, bring up issues that the big companies and industries try to overlook or cover up. The Populists believed that he nation found itself on the brink of â€Å"moral, political, and material ruin†. During those times corruption, bribery, and despotism was rampant everywhere around the whole world, not just the United States. The newspapers were bribed to be silenced, the public opinion didn’t matter anymore, and there was corruption in th e ballot boxes. The laborers were denied the freedom to form unions anymore. The currency flow was restricted by the mega-millionaires.There was no way of controlling the huge businesses to better the lives of the working class. These were some of the main issues that caused the Populists to believe that we were on the brink of â€Å"moral, political, and material ruin†. The two proposals put forth by the Populist Party that were significant were the right to form labor unions and the ownership of all transportation to the government. The right to form labor unions would become a sort of balancing process for the big companies. It would restrain the rampant companies from making their workers suffer from unfair and unjust working conditions.It would also provide a system of control that the large industries didn’t have before. The ownership of the railroads, telegraph, telephone, and post- office systems would create a universal fairness for the masses. Since it is a c rucial public necessity, a monopoly on any of these items could impact the whole country greatly. The government ownership of these systems would be for the general welfare of the people and create fees that can be affordable to the general masses and population throughout the United States. These are some of the issues and solutions stated in both Chief Joseph’s speech and the Populist platform.

Implementing A Debt Education Program - 1310 Words

An Alternative Solution to Fit Our Goals and Utilizing Available Resources Alternatively, more cost effective options are available, considering that the resources are already at our disposal. After careful consideration and investigating different options, we need the assistance of your division to reach as many students as possible, by promoting the tools and services that are available to assist our student’s financial needs. Student Affairs is appealing to Student Life for assistance because of your already strong relationships and outreach programs with students. While your department has the reputation of directly involving students through your events, our section finds it more difficult to connect with the students in such†¦show more content†¦We are appealing to your division as Student Life is already at the forefront of the student’s lives. We need your assistance to help make our students become knowledgeable about the tools they can use to manage their finances. Student Life is already involved with our freshman at orientation and we would appreciate if you can incorporate 15 to 30 minutes into the orientation presentation about what financial tools and services the university has to offer. We might not want to disseminate too much information at orientation, as it might seem overwhelming at that point to the students. We only want to bring these resources to our student’ s attention, informing them about upcoming events for money management throughout the year. We can reach other students that we do not connect with at orientation, through online promotions, such as Facebook and Twitter, on campus advertising, word of mouth, and events about developing money management skills. Again, the relevant marketing material is already at our disposal through CashCourse ®, however, we need the assistance of your team to help distribute and advertise the services. Facilitating Events: Another interesting feature through CashCourse ® is that they offer scavenger hunts. Student life could promote the scavenger hunt and assist with the execution of the events. The goal is to help students become familiar with the program throughout each

Old Smyrna - The Possible Home of Homer in Anatolia

Old Smyrna, also known as Old Smyrna Hà ¶yà ¼k, is one of several archaeological sites within the modern day limits of Izmir in Western Anatolia, in what is today Turkey, each reflecting early versions of the modern day port city. Prior to its excavation, Old Smyrna was a large tell rising approximately 21 meters (70 feet) above sea level. It was originally located on a peninsula jutting into the Gulf of Smyrna, although natural delta buildup and changing sea levels have moved the location inland about 450 m (about 1/4 mile). Old Smyrna lies in a geologically active region at the foot of Yamanlar Dagi, a now-extinct volcano; and Izmir/Smyrna has been subjected to numerous earthquakes during its long occupation. Benefits, however, include the ancient baths called the Agamemnon hot springs, found near the southern coast of Izmir Bay, and a ready source of building material for architecture. Volcanic rocks (andesites, basalts, and tuffs) were used to build many of the public and private structures within the town, alongside adobe mudbrick and a small amount of limestone. The earliest occupation at Old Smyrna was during the 3rd millennium BC, contemporaneous with Troy, but the site was small and there is limited archaeological evidence for this occupation. Old Smyrna was occupied fairly continuously from about 1000-330 BC. During its heyday in the mid 4th century BC, the city contained about 20 hectares (50 acres) within its city walls. Chronology Hellenistic period, ~330 BCVillage period, ~550 BCLydian Capture, ~600 BC, after which Smyrna was abandonedGeometric, strong Ionic influence by 8th century, new city wallProtogeometric, beginning ~1000 BC. Aeolic wares, probably a small anchorage of some kindPrehistoric, 3rd millennium BC, first habitation, prehistoric According to Herodotus among other historians, the initial Greek settlement at Old Smyrna was Aeolic, and within the first couple of centuries, it fell into the hands of Ionian refugees from Colophon. Changes in pottery from monochrome Aeolic wares to polychrome painted Ionic wares are in evidence at Old Smyrna by the early 9th century  and clear domination of the style by the beginning of the 8th century. Ionic Smyrna By the 9th century BC, Smyrna was under Ionic control, and its settlement was quite dense, consisting mainly of curvilinear houses packed tightly together. The fortifications were remodeled during the second half of the eighth century and the city wall extended to protect the entire south side. Luxury goods from across the Aegean became widely available, including export wine jars from Chios and Lesbos, and balloon amphorae containing Attic oils. Archaeological evidence suggests Smyrna was affected by an earthquake about 700 BC, which damaged both houses and the city wall. Afterward, curvilinear houses became a minority, and most architecture was rectangular and planned on a north-south axis. A sanctuary was constructed at the north end of the hill, and settlement spread outside the city walls up into the neighboring coast. At the same time, evidence for an improvement in architecture with volcanic block masonry, the apparently widespread use of writing, and remodeling of public buildings suggest new prosperity. An estimated 450 residential structures were located within the city walls  and another 250 outside the walls. Homer and Smyrna According to an ancient epigram Many Greek cities argue for Homers wise root, Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Ithaca, Pylos, Argos, Athens. The most important poet of ancient Greek and Roman writers was Homer, the archaic period bard and author of the Iliad and the Odyssey; born somewhere between the 8th and 9th centuries BC, if he lived here, it would have been during the Ionian period. There is no absolute evidence for his birth location, and Homer may or may not have been born in Ionia. It seems fairly likely that he lived at Old Smyrna, or someplace in Ionia such as Colophon or Chios, based on several textual mentions of the River Meles and other local landmarks. Lydian Capture and the Village Period About 600 BC, based on historical documentation and a predominance of Corinthian pottery amongst the ruins, the prosperous city was attacked and captured by Lydian forces, led by the king Alyattes [died 560 BC]. Archaeological evidence associated with this historic event is shown by the presence of 125 bronze arrowheads and numerous spearheads embedded in demolished housewalls destroyed in the late 7th century. A cache of iron weapons was identified in the Temple Pylon. Smyrna was abandoned for some decades, and reoccupation seems to come about the middle of the sixth century BC. By the fourth century BC, the town was a flourishing port city again, and it was refounded and moved across the bay to New Smyrna by the Greek generals Antigonus and Lysimachus. Archaeology at Old Smyrna Test excavations at Smyrna were conducted in 1930 by Austrian archaeologists Franz and H. Miltner. Anglo-Turkish investigations between 1948 and 1951 by Ankara University and the British School at Athens were led by Ekrem Akurgal and J. M. Cook. Most recently, remote sensing techniques have been applied to the site, to produce a topographic map and record of the ancient site. Sources Flickrite Kayt Armstrong (girlwithatrowel) has amassed a collection of photos of Old Smyrna.Berge MA, and Drahor MG. 2011. Electrical Resistivity Tomography Investigations of Multilayered Archaeological Settlements: Part II – A Case from Old Smyrna Hà ¶yà ¼k, Turkey. Archaeological Prospection 18(4):291-302.Cook JM. 1958/1959. Old Smyrna, 1948-1951. The Annual of the British School at Athens 53/54:1-34.Cook JM, Nicholls RV, and Pyle DM. 1998. Old Smyrna Excavations: The Temples of Athena. London: The British School at Athens.Drahor MG. 2011. A review of integrated geophysical investigations from archaeological and cultural sites under encroaching urbanisation in Izmir, Turkey. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 36(16):1294-1309.Nicholls RV. 1958/1959. Old Smyrna: The Iron Age Fortifications and Associated Remains on the City Perimeter. The Annual of the British School at Athens  53/54:35-137.Nicholls RV. 1958/1959. Site-Plan of Old Smyrna. The Annual of the Br itish School at Athens 53/54.Sahoglu V. 2005. The Anatolian trade network and the Izmir Region during the Early Bronze Age. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24(4):339-361.Tziropoulou-Efstathiou A. 2009. Homer and the So-Called Homeric Questions: Science and Technology in Homeric Epics. In: Paipetis SA, editor. Science and Technology in Homeric Epics: Springer Netherlands. p 451-467.